Syllabus Study Guide Ch. 16 - 17
Practice Questions
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Enlightenment
Western Civilization Practice Exam III Ch. 15 &
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Ordering Exercises
A, B, C, D
absolutism -- form of government in which sovereignty is
vested in a single person, the king or queen; absolute monarchs in the
16th and 17th centuries based their authority on the theory of the
divine right of king - i.e. that they had received their authority from
God and were responsible only to Him.
system of ruling were monarchs reduced the political power of the
landlord nobility as they gained and monopolized their own political
power.
Absolute monarchy or absolutism meant that the sovereign power
or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who
claimed to rule by divine right. But what did sovereignty mean? Late
sixteenth century political theorists believed that sovereign power
consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice,
control the state's administrative system, and determine foreign
policy. These powers made a ruler sovereign.
agricultural revolution the period from the mid-seventeenth
century on in Europe during which great agricultural progress was made
and the fallow was gradually eliminated.
Mary Astell argued that women needed to become better
educated and that they should be equal partners in their
marriage.
Francis Bacon - (1561-1626) one of the great philosophers
of the Scientific Revolution. His thoughts on logic and ethics in
science and his ideas on the cooperation and interaction of the various
fields of science, presented in his work Novum Organum, have remained
influential in the scientific world to this day.
Bill of Rights passed in 1689, it affirmed Parliament's
right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to
oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies
could only be raised with the consent of Parliament.
bourgeoisie well-educated, prosperous, middle-class groups /
the middle class, a group that included the merchants, industrialists,
bankers and professionals such as lawyers, holders of public offices,
doctors, and writers. / Under the old regime, anyone who lived in
an urban area was a bourgeois or member of the bourgeoisie, but the
term was usually applied only to wealthier people who did no manual
labor. Bourgeois were also those who lived from their invested income
or property, constituting a distinct social category that had its own
representation in municipal politics. After the Revolution, the term
“bourgeoisie” became associated with the concept of a capitalist social
class. In the nineteenth century, most notably in the work of Karl Marx
and other socialist writers, the French Revolution was described as a
bourgeois revolution in which a capitalist bourgeoisie overthrew the
feudal aristocracy in order to remake society according to capitalist
interests and values, thereby paving the way for the Industrial
Revolution.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was a great astronomical observer, and
made accurate and long-term records of his observations, from which he
derived his view of the structure of the solar system, in which the
moon and sun orbited the Earth and the remaining planets orbited the
sun. While incorrect, his scheme was as viable by the knowledge of the
time as was that of Nicolas Copernicus. / Danish
nobleman who made astronomical observations from an island given to him
by the king of Denmark.
checks and balances the idea that in government the executive,
legislative and judicial branches would systematically balance each
other and that the government would be checked by the power of the
individual states.
constitutional monarchy a monarchy were the king remains head of
state but all lawmaking power goes to the hands of another governing
body such as the National Assembly.
Copernican hypothesis the idea that the sun, not the earth, was the
center of the universe; this had enormous scientific and religious
implications.
Copernicus (1473-1543) was an avid student of astronomy, and in
1543 published De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium. In this treatise,
he presented the heliocentric theory, which rested on the revolutionary
notion that the Earth orbited the sun. / a mathematician who felt that
Ptolemy's geocentric system was too complicated and failed to accord
with the observed motions of the heavenly bodies. He hoped that his
heliocentric conception would offer a simpler and more accurate
explanation.
Deism belief in God as the creator of the universe who,
after setting it in motion, ceased to have any direct involvement in it
and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws.
Denis Diderot a writer who edited the Encyclopedia, or
Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, which became a
major weapon of the philosophes' crusade against the old French
society. The contributors attacked religious superstition and advocated
tolerance and social, legal and political improvements that would lead
to a more humane society.
E, F, G
Enlightenment a world-view has played a large role in shaping
the modern mind. The three central concepts of the Enlightenment were
the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress. / an
eighteenth-century intellectual movement, led by the philosophes, that
stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to all
aspects of life.
estates orders, the way in which France’s inhabitants were
legally divided - the clergy, the nobility, and everyone else.
experimental method Galileo’s greatest achievement; rather than
speculate about what might or should happen in an experiment, he
conducted controlled experiments to find out what actually did happen.
Galileo (1564-1642) studied physics, specifically the laws of
gravity and motion, and invented the telescope and microscope. Galileo
eventually combined his laws of physics with the observations he made
with his telescope to defend the heliocentric Copernican view of the
universe and refute the Aristotelian system in his 1630 masterwork, Dialogue
on the Two Chief Systems of the World. Upon its publication, he was
censored by the Catholic Church and sentenced to house arrest in 1633,
where he remained until his death in 1642. The Starry Messenger
the book in which Galileo Galilei published his revelations, revealing
himself as a firm proponent of Copernicus' heliocentric system.
Geocentric - The term geocentric describes the theory on the
organization of the universe presented by Ptolemy of ancient Greece,
and incorporated into the Aristotelian system, which claims that the
earth is the center of the solar system and that the sun and other
planets orbit around it.
H, I, J, K
William Harvey a doctor whose work demonstrated that the
heart, and not the liver, was the beginning point of circulation in the
body, that the same blood flows in both the veins and the arteries, and
that blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the
body.
Heliocentric - The term heliocentric describes the correct
theory, first posed by Nicolas Copernicus, that the Earth is simply one
of several planets which orbit the sun.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) studied the orbits of the
planets and sought to discern some grand scheme that defined the
structure of the universe according to simple geometry. Though he was
unable to do accomplish his goal, he did come up with the laws of
planetary motion, which explained the orbital properties of planets,
and factored extensively into Isaac Newton's later work.
/ mathematician and astronomer who discovered the
three laws of planetary motion that both confirmed and modified the
Copernican theory. They also eliminated the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian
ideas of uniform circular motion and crystalline spheres moving in
circular orbits.
L, M, N, O
laissez faire economic liberalism that believes in unrestricted
private enterprise and no government interference in the economy.
law of inertia a law formulated by Galileo that stated that rest
was not the natural state of object. Rather, an object continues in
motion forever unless stopped by some external force.
law of universal gravitation every body in the universe attracts
every body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship,
whereby the force of attraction is proportional to the quantity of
matter of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
John Locke - Locke's Second Treatise on Civil Government and
other works set forth the theory that men form governments,
compromising a degree of their liberty, in order that the government
might protect their lives and property. Locke (1632-1704) argued that a
representative government was the best type because it was bound to the
will of the people. / an 18th century English political
thinker who, while hardly an advocate of political democracy, had ideas
that proved important to both the Americans and the French and were
used to support demands for a constitutional government, the rule of
law, and the protection of rights.
Maria Theresa the Austrian empress whose changes made the
empire more centralized and bureaucratic for the purpose of
strengthening the Habsburg state. She also enlarged and modernized the
armed forces.
mercantilism prevailing economic theory of European nations in
16th and 17th centuries. It rested on the premise that a nation’s power
and wealth were determined by its supply of precious metal which were
to be acquired by increasing exports (paid for with gold) and reducing
imports to achieve domestic self-sufficiency; mercantilism remained the
dominant theory until the Industrial Revelation and articulation of
theory of laissez faire.
the economic health of a nation could be measured by the amount of
precious metal, gold, or silver, which it possessed
mercantilism dictated a favorable balance of trade
each nation tried to achieve economic self-sufficiency
regulated commerce could produce a favorable balance of trade
sea power was necessary to control foreign markets
colonies could provide markets for manufactured goods and sources of
raw material
Adapted from
<http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/%7Egrempel/courses/wc2/lectures/mercantilism.html>
The Baron de Montesquieu an Enlightenment writer whose most
well known work was done in the realm of political theory. Montequieu
sought to classify types of government by the geography and climate to
which they were best suited. His theories on the separation of powers
within a republic were important throughout the next century, as
monarchies were overthrown and republics established throughout Europe.
/ wrote of the importance of governmental checks and balances
created by a means of separation of powers. Much of the program of the
French Enlightenment is contained in his work.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) took the current theories on astronomy
a step further and formulated an accurate comprehensive model of the
workings of the universe based on the law of universal gravitation.
Newton explained his theories in the 1687 revolutionary work
Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica, often called simply the
Principia. / the scientist who invented calculus and
spelled out the mathematical proofs demonstrating his universal law of
gravitation.
nobility of the robe the faction of the French nobility
that derived their status from officeholding, a pathway that often
enabled commoners to attain noble rank.
nobility of the sword French nobility that claimed
to be descendants of the original medieval nobility.
O, P, Q, R
Peace of Utrecht (1713) series of treaties that ended the War of
the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked
the rise of the British Empire.
Peace of Westphalia (1648) general name of a series of treaties
that concluded the Thirty Years War; recognized the sovereign authority
of 300+ German princes (and thereby the end of the Holy roman Empire as
a viable state); acknowledged the independence of the United Provinces
of the Netherlands; made Calvinism a permissible creed within Germany;
and, by implication, reduced the role of the Roman Catholic Church in
European politics.
philosophes intellectuals in France who proclaimed that they
were bringing the light of knowledge to their ignorant fellow creatures
in the Age of Enlightenment. The philosophes were the group of French
Enlightenment philosophers who publicized and popularized the ideals of
the Enlightenment during the eighteenth century. Notable philosophes
include Voltaire, the Baron de Montesquieu, and Denis Diderot.
Pragmatic Sanction proclaimed by Charles VI in 1713, it stated
that the Habsburg possessions were never to be divided and were always
to be passed intact to a single heir, who might be female.
progress the idea that with the proper method of discovering
the laws of human existence, it was possible for humans to create
better societies and better people.
putting-out system term used to describe the 18th century rural
industry.
Jean Jacques Rousseau - (1712-1778), set forth his ideas on
government in his Contrat Social, which depicted a direct democracy in
a small state, governed by the will of the people. / The Social
Contract published in 1762, the work in which Rousseau tried
to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority. The social
contract was basically an agreement on the part of an entire society to
be governed by its general will.
S, T, U, V
salons elegant private drawing rooms where talented and rich
Parisian women held regular social gatherings to discuss literature,
science and philosophy.
Second Treatise on Civil Government (1690) by English political
philosopher John Locke, a justification of the Glorious Revolution of
1688-89 and of the people’s right of revolution; a defense of the
rights of property; it supported a system of checks and balances as
(later) embodied in the U.S. Constitution.
separation of powers the idea that despotism could be avoided
when political power was divided and shared by a variety of classes and
legal estates holding unequal rights and privileges.
serfdom system used by nobles and rulers where peasants were
bound first to the land they worked and then, by degrading obligations
to the lords they served.
tabula rasa a blank tablet, incorporated into Locke’s belief
that all ideas are derived from experience, and that the human mind at
birth is like a blank tablet on which the environment writes the
individual’s understanding and beliefs.
Voltaire - (1694-1778) rejected all that was based on
intolerance, tyranny, and superstition. He criticized religious
tradition and beliefs based on anything other than reason, presenting
his views wittily in a series of short stories and novels, the most
famous of which is Candide.
Glossary
Practice Tests: These are for other texts, but they cover
similar information.
Civilization in the West Online
A History of Western Society
Western Civilization : Ideas, Politics, and Society
Western Civilization : The Continuing Experiment
The Western Heritage Vol. 2
Shaping of the Modern World
HyperHistory Timeline
The
European Enlightenment Learning
Module by Richard Hooker
History Page Syllabus