Terms, People, and Events

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair - The peak of British disrespect for American neutrality at sea, on June 22, 1807, The British naval frigate HMS Leopard followed the American naval frigate USS Chesapeake out of Norfolk harbor in Virginia, and opened fire upon it after a request to board had been denied. The Chesapeake, not prepared for battle, lost three men and had twenty wounded, and permitted the British to board. The British naval officers boarded, seized four men who had deserted the royal navy, hanged them from a yardarm, and sailed away. Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act.

Embargo Act - In response to the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, Jefferson endorsed the Embargo Act, passed on December 22, 1807, which shut America off from the world economically by forbidding ships from leaving American ports to trade with other nations. He hoped the embargo would put economic pressure on the French, and especially the British. It did, but America suffered far more due to its economic isolation, and the Embargo Act was repealed on March 3, 1809.

The Federalists believed in a strong central government at the expense of state power. The nation's first two presidents, George Washington and John Adams, were Federalists, and during their terms, all branches of the national government were in Federalist hands.

Gag Rule In 1836, a South Carolinian senator introduced a gag rule on slavery in Congress. This outlawed discussion of slavery, which was growing increasingly charged and had the potential to prevent discussion of other topics.

Interposition - In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Kentucky and Virginia adopted resolutions, anonymously written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, which asserted that the states retained the power of interposition, which gave them the right to determine the constitutionality of congressional measures.

Judicial Review - Established by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison, the principle of judicial review held that the Supreme Court could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional.

Marbury v. Madison - John Adams made a number of appointments to federal justice positions on his way out of office. One of those, the appointment of William Marbury as justice of the peace in the District of Columbia, was not delivered by midnight of his last night in office. Secretary of state James Madison refused to deliver the commission to Marbury, who asked the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus ordering Madison to do so. Chief Justice John Marshall denied Marbury the writ, ruling that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional in granting the Supreme Court the power to issue such a writ. This established the principle of judicial review.

Midnight Appointments - Between December 12, 1800, when it became clear that he would not win reelection, and the day of Jefferson's inauguration, March 4, 1801, Adams appointed a significant number of federal judges. These midnight appointments consisted exclusively of Federalists, most of who had previous political or familial ties to prominent party members. Though Jefferson originally declared that he would not dismiss any Federalist appointees, he later revised this statement to protect only the appointees who did not fall into this category of midnight appointments.

nullification Theory advanced by John C. Calhoun which argued that since the federal government was a creation of the states, the states – not the courts or Congress – were the final arbiters of the constitutionality of federal laws. Thus, if a state concluded that Congress had passed an unconstitutional law, then it could hold a special convention and declare the federal law null and void within the state.

Popular Sovereignty was a term for the political belief that the people of a territory or state, rather than the Federal government, had the right to determine whether slavery would be legal within their land. Popular Sovereignty came to be closely associated with Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois, and was the vital animating idea behind the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which repealed the Missouri Compromise.

Republicans centered their political ideology on the states' rights doctrine. They believed in distributing governmental power to the states rather than concentrating it in the hands of the central government. The Republican Party became a political force in the later years of the Washington presidency, and was a constant thorn in Adams' side. In 1800, Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, took control of the national government and would maintain that control for decades.

spoils system  The political equivalent of the military axiom "To the victor belong the spoils." In the nineteenth century, the victorious political party in national, state, and local elections routinely dismissed most officeholders and replaced them with workers loyal to the incoming party. The "spoils" were the many patronage jobs available in the government. At the national level, this included thousands of post office and customs positions. Political organizations especially adept at manipulating spoils to remain in power were often called machines. Civil-service reformers demanded that non-policymaking jobs be filled on the basis of competitive examinations and that officeholders would continue in office as long as they performed satisfactorily.  

Squatter term used for people who "squatted" in a territory--claiming a plot of land without legal rights to it. With the coming of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, many people rushed to squat in Kansas in order to have a say in the slave status of the state.

Whigs  A major political party between 1834 and the 1850s. The Whigs were unified by their opposition to Andrew Jackson and their support for federal policies to aid business. The party was strongest among the merchants and manufacturers of the Northeast, the wealthy planters of the South, and the farmers of the West most eager for internal improvements.

People

John Adams was America's second president, from 1797 to 1801. A Federalist, his most notable actions in office were the undertaking of the Quasi-war with France and the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

Aaron Burr ran for president in 1800, chosen by the party to be Jefferson's vice president. However, every Republican elector voted for Jefferson and Burr so a tie ensued that had to be resolved by the House of Representatives. After a considerable struggle in the House, and Burr's refusal to withdraw, Jefferson became president, and Burr was politically dead. Later, Burr would attempt to lead a bizarre conspiracy to attack Texas and secede from the Union. Burr also eventually killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel.

Albert Gallatin was Jefferson's secretary of treasury, and played an important role in undoing many of the financial initiatives of the Federalists, including cutting taxes and expenditures, lowering the national debt, and divesting the government of its stock holdings in the Bank of the United States.

Thomas Jefferson - The leader of the Republican Party, Jefferson was president from 1801 to 1809, during which time he organized the national government by Republican ideals, doubled the size of the nation, and struggled to maintain American neutrality.

Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, most often known collectively as Lewis and Clark, were commissioned by Jefferson to explore the new territory of the Louisiana Purchase. They traveled 3,000 miles in two and a half years, collecting scientific data and specimens, and charting the territory to the west of the Mississippi. Their journey spurred much interest throughout the nation in further exploration and settlement in the West.

James Madison - James Madison was Jefferson's secretary of state and chosen successor to the presidency. Madison was an ardent Republican, and anonymously authored the Virginia Resolution, which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts.

John Marshall - John Marshall was the chief Justice of the Supreme Court during Jefferson's presidency. His most notable decision during this time came in Marbury v. Madison, in which he asserted the principle of judicial review, which stated that the Supreme Court could deem an act of Congress unconstitutional.

Zebulon Pike - Pike earned the nickname "the lost pathfinder" due to his misadventures in exploring the headwaters of the Mississippi, and later the Arkansas River. It is suspected by many that his true mission in exploring the Arkansas may have been to investigate Spanish positions south of the American territory. Pike's maps of the southern portion of the Louisiana Territory proved invaluable to future explorers and settlers.

John Randolph, a Republican leader in the House of Representatives, led the faction which became known as the Tertium Quids, breaking from the main party in disapproval of Jefferson's actions in regard to West Florida.

Sacajawea - During their first winter, at a Mandan Indian village, Lewis and Clark hired as an interpreter a French fur-trader, Toussaint Charbonneau, and his Indian wife Sacajawea. Though Charbonneau proved to be only of limited help, Sacajawea was indispensable as a guide, especially during the crossing of the Bitteroot Mountains in what is now southern Idaho. She showed the party how to forage for food, and was instrumental in maintaining good relations with the Indian tribes of what is now the northwest US.

Charles de Tallyrand  was the French foreign minister during Jefferson's presidency. He was instrumental in France's continued efforts to dominate and maipulate the US governments. In October 1797, it was he who perpetrated the XYZ Affair, sending anonymous agents to meet an American diplomatic envoy and demand a bribe for Tallyrand before he would meet with them. Later, Tallyrand would negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, and after, attempt to stir up disputes between Spain and the US over the definitions of their borders in North America.

James Wilkinson - James Wilkinson was the military commander of the Louisiana Territory; he sent Zebulon Pike on his exploration missions. Heavily involved in espionage, it is known that Wilkinson was on Spain's payroll for his part in trying to persuade southwestern settlers to secede from the Union. Wilkinson entered into cahoots with Aaron Burr in Burr's attempted conspiracy, only to betray Burr to Jefferson.

Events

Election of 1800 - Thomas Jefferson called the election of 1800 "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of 1776 was in its form." The election of 1800 marked the transition of power from Federalists to Republicans, and began a period of tearing down the Federalist style of government and building up a Republican framework.

Louisiana Purchase - Negotiated in April 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was one of the most important events in US history. It doubled the size of the nation, opening the west to exploration and settlement. With the Louisiana Purchase came the possibility of expansion and also the strife which would accompany the admission of new states from that region. Additionally, the Louisiana Purchase created a period during which the US could not detangle itself from foreign affairs, as its borders were increasingly changing and called into question.

XYZ Affair - In response to continued French aggression at sea, John Adams sent a diplomatic envoy to France to negotiate for peace in 1797, just after a coup d'etat in the directory. Charles de Tallyrand, the new French foreign minister, refused to meet with the US delegation, instead sending three anonymous agents, X, Y, and Z. The agents delivered the message that Tallyrand would not begin talks until he received $250,000 for himself, and France received a $12 million loan. This widely publicized (in America) attempt at extortion aroused public outrage among the American people, some of whom called for war.

Timeline

1739: Stono Slave Rebellion An African slave named Jemmy led a small group of other African slaves in South Carolina to Spanish Florida. They are caught and hanged a few miles from the border.

Summer 1787: The Constitutional Convention- Delegates to the constitutional convention argued over slave questions, revealing the first tinges of sectionalism in the republic.

1792: Denmark Abolishes Slavery Denmark became the first European nation to abolish the slave trade.

1793: Original Fugitive Slave law The first fugitive slave law put the burden of proof on the fugitive. Most Northern states passed laws that repealed this law and were allowed to do so by the central government.

1790s: Northern States Abolished Slavery   All the Northern states gradually emancipated their slaves. The last three to do so are New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.

Summer 1800: Gabriel Prosser's Rebellion   A young slave blacksmith named Gabriel Prosser conspired an unsuccessful slave revolt of about 1,000 slaves in Richmond, Virginia. Whites were alerted before his force could strike.

1803: Louisiana Purchase  Napoleon Bonaparte arranged for the sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

1803-4: Haitian Revolution  Inspired in part by the French Revolution and led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, massive numbers of slaves revolted on the French colony of St. Domingue. The successful revolution led to the end of French rule and the establishment of the first black nation in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti.

1808: Slave Trade Abolished  Britain and the United States abolished the international slave trade.

1812-1815: War of 1812  Final imperial struggle between the United States and Britain left the United States with undisputed control over the country.

1820: Missouri Compromise The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and divided the country between slavery and freedom at the 36'30 line.

1820: Condemnation of the Slave Trade  Congress declared that the international slave trade was "piracy" and moved to end the illegal trade

July 1821: Mexico Won Independence from Spain   Mexico won independence from Spain and took control of the territories of New Mexico and California.

June 1822: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion A free black carpenter led a conspiracy to create mass insurrection among the slaves of Charleston, South Carolina. They wre caught before the revolt could take place; 35 were hanged.

October 26, 1825: The Erie Canal was opened  Completing construction begun in 1817, the 363-mile canal connects Buffalo and Albany New York, which then connected to New York City via the Hudson River. The Erie Canal linked New York City to the Great Lakes, and the West. This began a period of rapid canal development in the North and Northwest, revolutionizing domestic trade and transportation.

May 26, 1830: The Indian Removal Act  The Indian Removal Act granted President Andrew Jackson the funding and authority to remove the Indians residing east of the Mississippi River.

January 1, 1831: - William Lloyd Garrison published the first issue of The Liberatr in Boston.

August 1831: Nat Turner's Rebellion- Perhaps the bloodiest slave rebellion in United States history; a preacher named Nat Turner led about 40 slaves to kill over 20 whites in southeastern Virginia. They were caught and hanged.

1831: David Walker's Appeal   A free black named David Walker published his "appeal" to other free blacks to demand equality and immediate freedom for other African-Americans, by force if necessary. He was later found mysteriously dead.

1832:  In the case of Worcester v. Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees comprised a "domestic dependent nation" within Georgia and thus deserved protection from harassment. However, the rabidly anti-Indian Andrew Jackson refused to abide by the decision, sneering "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it."

1833:  British slavery was abolished, with payment given to slave owners and an apprenticeship period for slaves.

1833-36: Nullification Crisis- Furious over Northern tariffs, South Carolina's John Calhoun made the first threat of state secession in Congress.

December 1835: Gag Rule - In an effort to keep Congress from becoming "ungentlemanly," James Hammond of South Carolina introduced a gag rule that restricted discussion and introduction of topics pertaining to slavery.

November 1835: The Texas Rebellion began - A group of Texan leaders convened to draw up a provisional government and declare independence from Mexico. Shortly after, fighting broke out.

December 29, 1835: Treaty of New Echota was Signed - Federal agents persuaded a pro-removal Cherokee chief to sign the Treaty of New Echota, which ceded all Cherokee land for $5.6 million and free transportation west. Most Cherokees rejected the treaty, but resistance was futile. Between 1835 and 1838 bands of Cherokee Indians moved west of the Mississippi along the so-called Trail of Tears. Between 2,000 and 4,000 of the 16,000 migrating Cherokees died.

March 6, 1836: The Alamo was taken by Mexican Troops - Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's Mexican force of 4,000 troops laid siege to the town of San Antonio, where 200 Texans resisted, retreating to an abandoned mission, the Alamo. After inflicting over 1,500 casualties on Santa Anna's men, the defenders of the Alamo were wiped out on March 6, 1836. The Alamo became a symbol of the Texans' determination to win independence.

1838: Frederick Douglass   escaped from Maryland. He became a leading spokesman for the abolitionist movement and published several autobiographies.

1839: Amistad   The Spanish slave ship  Amistad was seized by its cargo, the revolting slaves. The ship sailed to the Northeastern United States and was the subject of a famous court decision that ended with the return of the slaves to Africa.

1839: Gradual Emancipation   John Quincy Adams introduced Constitutional amendments for gradual emancipation of slaves. They were rejected

Spring 1844: John Tyler's Treaty Proposing the Annexation of Texas is Defeated in the Senate  Congressmen wary of inciting further sectional conflict defeated the treaty for annexation. However, annexation became the major issue in the 1844 election.

February 1845  After James K. Polk  became President of the United States in January, Congress passed a measure approving annexation, trusting Polk to oversee Texas' admission more effectively than John Tyler would have.

July 4, 1845   Five months after the United States Congress voted to annex Texas, a Texas convention voted to accept annexation, despite the warning by the Mexican government that any agreement to join the United States would be equivalent to a declaration of war.

December 29, 1845:  Texas was officially granted statehood and became the 28th state.

May 9, 1846:   Polk, waiting for Mexico to strike the first blow, heard of attacks on American troops and declared the Mexican War begun. He demanded that Congress vote for appropriations to carry out the war.
May 1846-1848: Mexican-American War   The United States battled Mexico for control of the Southwest territory

August 8, 1846: Wilmot Proviso   Congressional proviso launched by Northern Democrats to forbid slavery in any territory acquired by Mexico. Marked a serious split between Northern and Southern Democrats on the matter of slavery.

November 1846: Due to incorrect directions, the Donner Party found itself snowbound in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and arrived at its destination in California only after turning to cannibalism to survive.

1846: Holland abolished slavery in all of her colonies.

January, 1848: Gold was discovered in California   An American carpenter found gold at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, sparking a gold rush which brought tens of thousands of new settlers to California, establishing towns and cities, and accelerating the drive toward statehood.

February 2, 1848: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo   At the close of the Mexican War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded Texas, New Mexico, and California to the United States.

1850: Compromise of 1850 allowed California to be admitted as a free state (temporarily upsetting the balance between slave and free states in the Union) in exchange for the Fugitive Slave Law, allowing for the extradition of fugitive slaves from the North to the South. Also allowed for popular sovereignty in new territories.

1850-1856: Northern Personal Liberty Laws  Many Northern states enacted personal liberty laws that repealed the Fugitive Slave Law. The most famous law was in Pennsylvania.

1852: Uncle Tom's CabinHarriet Beecher Stowe published her controversial best-seller that called for emancipation. The book was heralded in the North and denounced by the South.

January 30, 1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act  This act repealed the Missouri Compromise by opening up the territory above the 36'30 line to popular sovereignty on the matter of slavery. The first territory to be subject was Kansas, which soon erupted in a struggle between proslavery and antislavery settlers and squatters over the status of Kansas.

February 2, 1854: Anthony Burns demonstration  In direct response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which infuriated Northerners, Boston erupted in demonstrations when a U.S. Marshal came to arrest Anthony Burns, a runaway slave.

May 24, 1856: Potawatomie Massacre -- John Brown and his sons killed five proslavery squatters in Kansas.

1856: Sumner beaten - The antislavery Senator Charles Sumner was severely beaten in the Senate by Senator Preston Brooks of South Carolina.

1857: Dred Scott Decision In this famous Supreme Court decision, the courts said that black people cannot be citizens (free or not) and that slaves brought into free territory by their owners remained property.

1858: The Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas (nominally) as a slave state, was submitted. Kansas was admitted as a free state.

October 16, 1859: John Brown's Attack on Harper's Ferry With 19 assistants, John Brown surprised and captured the arsenal at Harper's Ferry. Two days later he was captured by Robert E. Lee and U.S. troops. He was hanged on December 2.

By 1860, the only systems of slavery in the New World were in the United States, Cuba, and Brazil.

1860: Election of Abraham Linclon Over the complete opposition of the slaveholding states, Lincoln was elected president.

December 20, 1860 South Carolina issued articles of secession, prompting a string of secessionary responses from other slaveholding states and the beginning of the Civil War.