Ch 18 Thomas Edison corporations vertical and horizontal integration Standard Oil John D. Rockefeller Andrew Carnegie mechanization sweatshops child labor tenements Jane Addams the Gospel of Wealth Social Darwinism The Great Uprising of 1877 The Knights of Labor Haymarket Square The American Federation of Labor Homestead and Pullman immigration Chinese immigration Japanese immigration. Nativism the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. the Great Migration rapid transit suburbs consumer society department stores football baseball     amusement parks

Ch  19 Central Pacific Union Pacific   Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Comanche the reservation system Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851   Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 Warfare Sand Creek Chivington Black Kettle Fetterman Treaty of Laramie in 1868 Crook Custer Little Big Horn Sitting Bull Crazy Horse Nez Perce Chief Joseph Geronimo Wounded Knee Chronology of Western Conquest   boarding schools The Dawes Act of 1887 mining camps   Map   Virginia City cow towns the Chisholm Trail Joseph McCoy Abilene Wichita Dodge City Cattle Kingdom Map   The Homestead Act of 1862 Joseph Glidden barbed wire Dodge City     Billy the Kid      Train Robbery     railroads

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Terms

Alamo - During the Texas Rebellion, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna's Mexican force of 4,000 troops laid siege to the town of San Antonio, where 200 Texans resisted, retreating to an abandoned mission, the Alamo. After inflicting over 1,500 casualties on Santa Anna's men, the defenders of the Alamo were wiped out on March 6, 1836. The Alamo became a symbol of the Texans' determination to win independence.

American Federation of Labor - Founded in 1886, the AFL sought to organize craft unions in a federation in which the individual unions maintained some autonomy. The structure of the AFL differed from that of the Knights of Labor, who wanted to absorb individual unions. The AFL's founding leader was Samuel Gompers. It was composed mainly of skilled craft unions and was the first national labor organization to survive and experience a degree of success, largely because of its conservative leadership that accepted industrial capitalism.

Carpetbaggers - Derogatory southern term for northern whites who came south during Reconstruction to help black freedmen and make profit for themselves.

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law restricting immigration into the United States. Those on the West Coast blamed declining wages on Chinese workers. Although the Chinese composed only .002 percent of the nation's population, Congress passed the exclusion act to placate worker demands and assuage prevalent concerns about maintaining white "racial purity." The statute of 1882 suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and declared the Chinese as ineligible for naturalization. Chinese workers already in the country challenged the constitutionality of the discriminatory acts, but their efforts failed. The act was renewed in 1892 for another ten years, and in 1902 Chinese immigration was made permanently illegal.

Compromise of 1850 - The Compromise of 1850 was a major effort at quieting sectional conflict in pre-Civil War American politics. In terms of expansion, its most important clauses were those admitting California to statehood as a free state and dividing the remainder of the Mexican cession after the Mexican War into two sections, New Mexico and Utah, neither of which would be subject to restrictions on slavery.

Corporation - An entity unto itself under the law; a corporation can be sued and is distinct from its owners. Corporations limit the liability of the owners and allow large amounts of money and resources to be accumulated in one organization. Corporations can have multiple owners (shareholders) and present certain tax advantages to proprietorships.

Dawes Severalty Act - Passed in 1887, the Dawes Act called for the breakup of the reservations and the treatment of Indians as individuals rather than tribes. It provided for the distribution of 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land to any Indian who accepted the act's terms, who would then become a US citizen in 25 years. The act was intended to help/force the Indians to integrate into white society, but in reality helped to create a class of federally dependent Indians. The Dawes Act ended many Native American tribes' legal existence. In exchange for abandoning their culture, the Native Americans were promised US citizenship. Some Reservation land was sold to railroads and white settlers to finance "Americanization" programs aimed at educating and christianizing Native Americans.

Donner Party - The exploits of the Donner Party exemplified the difficulties of the overland journey to the Far West. Led astray by the erred advice of a guidebook, the Donner Party found itself snowbound in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and arrived at its destination in California only after turning to cannibalism.

Ghost Dance - The Ghost Dance was seen as the final attempt of the Plains Indians to maintain their culture and land. The prophet Wovoka convinced the Sioux that they could only save their land and return to dominance if they performed the Ghost Dance. The dance soon became a reaffirmation of culture and a source of inspiration to renew the struggle against US forces of expansion. This renewed inspiration, however, was crushed before it could get off of the ground.

The Gospel of Wealth was the term for a notion promoted by many successful businessmen that their massive wealth was a social benefit for all. The Gospel of Wealth was a softer and more palatable version of Social Darwinism. The advocates linked wealth with responsibility, arguing that those with great material possessions had equally great obligations to society.

Grandfather Clause - An aspect of the southern Jim Crow laws, the Grandfather Clause stated that anyone whose grandfather had voted before the Civil War did not have to pay poll taxes. The measure was an attempt to force the poll tax on blacks--whose grandfathers obviously had not voted before the Civil War--thus stopping nearly all blacks from voting.

Grange - The Patrons of Husbandry, known as "the Grange", was founded in 1867. A group of discontented farmers, the Grange pushed for inflation via paper money ("Greenbackism") and the regulation of railway shipping rates. The so-called "Granger Laws," a number of regulatory laws regarding railroads, were passed in the 1870s and 1880s, but were ultimately overturned by the supreme court in the 1886 Wabash case.

Half-breeds - Republicans who focused on civil service reforms and other issues, de- emphasizing the traditional Republican concern for the plight of southern blacks.

The Immigration Restriction League urged that immigrants be required to demonstrate literacy in some language. In theory, a literacy test would not discriminate against the people of any particular race, creed, or color. But in reality it would keep out many of the "new" immigrants from southern and eastern Europe —whom league members considered inferior beings, likely to become criminals or public charges if admitted. A literacy bill was passed by Congress in 1897, but President Grover Cleveland vetoed it. In 1917, however, as wartime hysteria fed American xenophobia, another literacy bill was passed over by President Woodrow Wilson's veto.

Indian Removal Act - The Indian Removal Act, passed in 1830, granted President Andrew Jackson funds and authority to remove the Indians by force if necessary. He pursued a determined effort to coerce the Indians into expulsion.

Interstate Commerce Act - In 1886, in the Wabash case which overturned the Granger Laws, the Supreme Court had ruled that states could not regulate interstate commerce such as railroads. The court decision left railroad regulation up to the Federal Government. In 1887, Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Act, which forbade many of the monopolistic practices of the railroads.

Jim Crow - The body of laws, including poll taxes and Grandfather Clauses, that made it difficult or impossible for southern blacks to vote in the late nineteenth and early twentieth-century south.

Knights of Labor - Founded in 1869, the Knights were the first major labor organization in the US. Looking to combine various unions in one organization, the Knights fell into decline after one of their members was executed for killing a policeman in the Haymarket Riot in 1886.

Machine politics (boss politics)- The means by which Gilded Age political parties controlled candidates and voters, through networks of loyalty and corruption. In machine politics, party bosses utilized their ability to give away jobs and benefits (patronage) in exchange for votes for the candidates they backed. This is also sometimes referred to as the "Spoils System".

Manifest Destiny - Journalist John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase "Manifest Destiny" in 1845. He wrote of "our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of our continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty." Manifest Destiny referred to the belief of many Americans that it was the nation's destiny and duty to expand and conquer the West in the name of God, nature, civilization, and progress.

Mugwumps - In the 1880s, reform-minded Republicans who became Democrats because of the corruption of the Republican presidential candidate James. G. Blaine. Because of Mugwump defection, Democrat Grover Cleveland managed to become the only Democrat elected president during the Gilded Age.

Nativism  Laborers often complained that immigrants depressed wages because the newcomers would work for less pay than native-born workers. The frequency with which employers used immigrants to replace striking workingmen only deepened the animosity toward newcomers. Employers also practiced nativism: many help-wanted advertisements of the period ended with the proviso "No Irish Need Apply." The first laws enacted to restrict immigration affected only Asians. Congress prohibited immigration from China for ten years starting in 1882 and banned it permanently in 1902. President Theodore Roosevelt concluded a "gentle man's agreement" with Japan in 1907 that excluded immigrants from that country.

Oregon Trail - Perhaps the most well known of the overland trails to the Far West, the Oregon trail led many settlers to Oregon's Willamette Valley between 1840 and 1848 and was representative of the hardships of overland travel.

Pendleton Act - Act of 1883 that reformed the US civil service, adding competitive examinations and protecting jobs for certain government employees. Although not all government jobs were initially placed under the Pendleton Act, it cut into the patronage on which machine politics was largely based.

Plessy v. Ferguson - Supreme Court court decision that held the doctrine of "separate but equal" was constitutional. The case dealt with segregated railway cars, and the court found that laws could not regulate social customs.

Populists - Network of Farmers' Alliances in the Middle West and South that agitated for various reforms, especially Free Silver, in the late Gilded Age. In 1892, the Populists backed a third-party candidate, James Weaver, for President. After a decent showing in that election, the Democrats appropriated parts of the Populist platform (the Omaha Platform) with candidate William Jennings Bryan.

Robber-Barons - Industrial magnates during the Gilded Age who built unprecedented wealth utilizing the new corporation and monopoly practices.

Santa Fe Trail - Southwestern travelers more often than not used the Santa Fe Trail to move westward. The trail linked St. Louis and Santa Fe, leading to the establishment of strong economic connections between the regions surrounding the endpoints of the trail.

Sioux - Native American federation of horse-culture peoples of the American plains. Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa chieftain. The Hunkpapa were part of the Lakota, or Western Sioux.

Social Darwinism - Darwinism is Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. It holds that species evolve through a gradual process called "natural selection", through which the "survival of the fittest takes place." Social Darwinism attempts to apply Darwin's theories regarding the natural world to human societies, often in fallacious ways.

Stalwarts - Republicans focused on the traditional Republican goals of aiding southern blacks and suppressing southern white supremacists.

tenement   Originally a term for any building in which multiple families resided, tenement eventually came to refer to the overpopulated slum housing available to new urban immigrants.

Trail of Tears - In 1835, federal agents persuaded a pro-removal Cherokee chief to sign the Treaty of New Echota, which ceded all Cherokee land for $5.6 million and free transportation west. Most Cherokees rejected the treaty, but resistance was futile. Between 1835 and 1838 bands of Cherokee Indians moved west of the Mississippi along the so-called Trail of Tears. Between 2,000 and 4,000 of the 16,000 migrating Cherokees died. The Trail of Tears became a symbol for the harsh treatment of the Indians at the hands of the federal government.

Transcontinental Railroad - On May 10, 1869, the first transcontinental railroad was completed when the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads joined their tracks at Promontory Point, Utah. The railroad rapidly affected the ease of western settlement, shortening the journey from coast to coast, which took six to eight months by wagon, to a mere one week's trip.

Worcester v. Georgia - In the case of Worcester v. Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees comprised a "domestic dependent nation" within Georgia and thus deserved protection from harassment. However, the vehemently anti-Indian Andrew Jackson refused to abide by the decision, sneering "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it."

People

Jane Addams - Reformer and pacifist, best known for her founding of Hull House, a social settlement house, in 1889. Hull house provided various educational and cultural activities for poor immigrants.

Chester A. Arthur - US President from 1881-1885, he assumed the Presidency after the assassination of Garfield. Arthur was a stalwart and had previously been a spoils man, heading the New York customhouse at the control of Roscoe Conkling. Despite his past, however, the Pendleton Act was passed during Arthur's term.

Alexander Graham Bell  changed the nature of life in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century with his invention of the telephone. 

Black Kettle was a leader of the southern Cheyenne in Colorado, noted for consistently seeking peace with the whites.  Anticipating U.S. retaliation if he didn’t agree to treaty restrictions, Black Kettle agreed to surrender all his people's lands in 1861 except for the barren and forsaken Sand Creek Reservation in southeastern Colorado. Despite their attempts to live quietly, the Cheyenne were attacked in 1863 by John Chivington and the Third Colorado Volunteers in a daybreak massacre. Cheyenne men, women and children, numbering around 200, were slaughtered, with numerous bodies grossly disfigured.

William Jennings Bryan - Democratic presidential candidate of 1896, against McKinley. Bryan, a gifted orator, was famous for his "Cross of Gold" speech advocating Free Silver.

Andrew Carnegie concentrated his attention on making steel. He hired the best people in steel technology and plant management, held on to absolute control of his enterprise, plowed profits into capital improvements, and outgeneraled all his rivals. By his sixties, having vertically integrated his holdings from ore to finished products, he dominated the American steel industry, which he had done much to make first in the world. When he sold out to the Morgan-created United States Steel Corporation in 1901 for $250 million in U.S. Steel bonds, he found himself one of the world's richest men.

Grover Cleveland - The only Democrat elected President during the Gilded Age. Cleveland was also the only President to serve a term, lose an election, and then be reelected in a following election, largely because of Republican mugwumps' defection to the Democrats.

Roscoe Conkling - Glded Age Republican stalwart, Senator from New York, and proponent of machine politics and patronage. Conkling controlled the New York customhouse appointment to which Chester A. Arthur was appointed before becoming President.

Crazy Horse  In December 1866, when the Sioux and Cheyenne combined to challenge Fort Phil Kearny, Crazy Horse brought Lt. Col. William J. Fetterman and eighty men into an ambush that became known as the Fetterman massacre. Crazy Horse joined Sitting Bull to defend the Black Hills and resist reservation control. When the U.S. Army mounted a three-pronged military operation in 1876 to drive the "free" Plains Indians onto reservations, Crazy Horse confronted the column led by Gen. George Crook at Rosebud Creek, June 17. After the battle, the victors rode to the Little Bighorn to join Sitting Bull's large encampment of Sioux and Cheyenne. On the twenty-fifth, Gen. George A. Custer's column attacked the camp, and Crazy Horse and Gall, a chief of the Hunkpapa Sioux, led their warriors in a pincers attack that quickly enveloped Custer's divided cavalry and wiped it out.

George Armstrong Custer (Yellow Hair) was dispatched to the hills of South Dakota in 1874. When gold was discovered in the region, the federal government announced that Custer's forces would hunt down all Sioux (Lakota) not in reservations after January 31, 1876. Many Sioux refused to comply, and Custer began to mobilize his troops.  Custer led his men in an unprovoked attack on the Sioux and Cheyenne camp. to disastrous defeat against Sitting Bull and the Sioux at the battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. At the battle of Little Bighorn, in June 1876, Custer was foolish enough to believe that he could ride through the Sioux. He  divided his troops, and the Sioux and Cheyenne under Crazy Horse wiped out the 7th Cavalry. This battle, known as "Custer's Last Stand," convinced the army that the Sioux were a powerful force. The cavalry then began a campaign to exterminate the Sioux and Cheyenne by slaughtering any warriors who resisted and women and children in the camps. 

Thomas Edison was involved in the development of thetelephone transmitter, phonograph, electric light, and a system of electrical generation and distribution. More than a thousand patents bore his name (though not all were primarily of his creation).

Geronimo  The US government began trying to force the Apache on to reservations, and many were unhappy with the restrictions and changes in their way of life. The Chiricahuas were unhappy with the prospect of any reservation life and then
angry when they were forcibly gathered with other Apache groups on the San Carlos Reservation in Arizona in the mid-1870s. Geronimo resented the move and disliked San Carlos. For the next decade he and his followers repeatedly broke out from what they saw as imprisonment. Since they were on their own land in southern Arizona and northern Mexico, they were exceptionally difficult to locate and bring back. Geronimo and his followers wanted to live as their people had before the white invasion.
Geronimo's repeated escapes embarrassed politicians, army officers, and the non-Indian populace of the Southwest. His name brought terror to the people who continually heard of his evading capture and occasionally killing Americans and Mexicans.

Samuel Gompers - Gilded Age leader of the American Federation of Labor, known for "business unionism," a pragmatic approach based on negotiating for gradual concessions to labor. Under Gompers, the AFL rarely went on strike, and the craft unions which made up its membership maintained autonomy, a different approach from that followed by the more radical and integrative Knights of Labor.

Rutherford B. Hayes - After winning a contested election against Samuel Tilden, Hayes served as President from 1877 to 1881. Under Hayes, Reconstruction came to an end as part of the Compromise of 1877.

William Randolph Hearst - Newspaper publisher who built up the nation's largest newspaper chain.

Chief Joseph  and the Nez Percé waged a series of battles during the summer of 1877. Making their way through the mountainous terrain of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana, they frustrated the efforts of the U.S. Army to capture them. The Nez Percés crossed into northern Montana on September 23. Thinking they had outrun their pursuers, they stopped to rest near the Bear Paw Mountains, about forty miles south of the Canadian border. Suffering from hunger and exhaustion, they prepared for the final push into Canada. But there they were surprised by Gen. Nelson Miles on September 30. On October 5 they ended what had already become a famous flight. Joseph had been assured that the Nez Percés would be permitted to return to their home country in the Wallowa Valley in eastern Oregon. But political pressure from the Northwest forced them into exile in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).

Joseph Pulitzer - A leading Gilded Age newspaper publisher, known for sensationalist stories.

John D. Rockefeller was the primary force behind the establishment of the Standard Oil Company and thus of the American petroleum industry. Using such then-legal tactics as railroad rebates and predatory pricing, Standard Oil steadily increased its hold over the American oil industry until by 1880 it controlled fully 90 percent of it. Standard Oil's legal counsel devised the trust form of organization. Standard Oil became both the first and the largest of the "trusts."

Sitting Bull - Lakota warrior and chieftain who fought against domination by white men. After the battle of Little Bighorn, Sitting Bull and the Sioux resistors were forced to surrender, and for a time Sitting Bull toured with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show in the 1880s. Sitting Bull then got involved in the Ghost Dance Revival, which hoped to restore the Sioux to their previous lifestyles on the Plains. In 1890, Sitting Bull was killed, putting an end to the movement.

Events

Fetterman Massacre - 1866 ambush of 81 soldiers by the Sioux, who mutilated the bodies in response to an earlier massacre of Native Americans (including women and children) in 1864 by the US Army.

Fort Laramie Treaty - Signed in 1868 after the Fetterman Massacre, the Fort Laramie Treaty gave the Sioux a large reservation, including the Black Hills of South Dakota which Custer's men would later enter in search of gold.

The Haymarket Riot began when a bomb exploded among a squad of policemen at a workers' rally in Haymarket Square, Chicago, on May 4, 1886. Since May 1, a loosely organized national strike for the eight-hour day had been gaining momentum in Chicago. On May 3 strikers had come to the support of a strike at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company; police had fired on the crowd, and four people had been killed. The Haymarket rally, organized by a small anarchist group, was called to protest the killings. About three hundred were gathered when 180 police demanded that they disperse. Suddenly a bomb exploded among the policemen, killing one and wounding many more, including seven who died later. The police responded with gunfire, killing seven or eight people in the crowd and injuring about a hundred, half of them fellow officers. The Haymarket bombing triggered a national wave of fear; public officials, civic leaders, the press, and some union leaders joined in equating foreign birth with anarchism and terror. In Chicago hundreds of socialists, anarchists, and other radicals were rounded up.

The Homestead Strike, 1892, in Homestead, Pennsylvania, pitted Carnegie Steel Company, against the nation's strongest trade union, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. An 1889 strike had won the steelworkers a favorable three-year contract; now Andrew Carnegie was determined to break the union. The union represented less than one-fifth of the workers at the plant, but the rest voted overwhelmingly to join the strike. The union directed the strike and soon took over the company town as well. The plant manager sent for three hundred Pinkerton guards, but when they arrived by barge on July 6 they were met by ten thousand strikers, many of them armed. After an all-day battle, the Pinkertons surrendered and were forced to run a gauntlet through the crowd. In all, nine strikers and seven Pinkertons were killed; many strikers and most of the remaining Pinkertons were injured, some seriously.

The Pullman Strike of 1894 demonstrated late-nineteenth-century business and government attitudes toward labor. In the wake of the highly profitable Chicago World's Fair of 1893 and the panic that struck the world economy the same year, George Pullman, the inventor of the railroad sleeping car, fired one-third of his workers and cut the wages of those who remained by 30 percent. But he would not cut prices for homes or food in Pullman, the company town near Chicago that he had built to house his employees. Eugene V. Debs, president of the American Railway Union (aru), ordered a strike when Pullman refused to negotiate with the aru over the cuts. The owners and management of other lines backed Pullman, providing replacement workers while Debs organized his rank and file, who refused to work on any trains that used a Pullman car. President Grover Cleveland also sided with Pullman, contending that strike-related violence and boycotts interrupted mail service. On July 2, Debs defied a federal injunction to return to work, prompting his arrest and the use of federal troops.

Reconstruction - Period from 1865 to 1877 in the South in which the North tried to solve various problems resulting from the Civil War and its aftermath. During Radical Reconstruction, northern troops occupied the South, and southerners complained endlessly about being exploited by so-called carpetbaggers. Sparknote on Reconstruction

Sand Creek Massacre - Disputes on the southern plains culminated in the Sand Creek massacre (1864), during which John M. Chivington's Colorado volunteers slaughtered over two hundred of Black Kettle's Cheyennes and Arapahos, many of whom had already attempted to come to terms with the government.

Wounded Knee - The Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890, was part of the army's attempt to force Indians on to reservations or exterminate any who resisted.The U.S. Seventh Cavalry killed between 146 and 300 Sioux men, women, and children, after the Sioux warriors refused to surrender their arms. Two years earlier, on a reservation in Nevada, a Paiute named Wovoka (also known as Jack Wilson) had begun preaching that an Indian Messiah would soon arrive who would restore the American continent to the Indians and reunite them with their dead families. A cult grew from his teachings, centering on the mystical Ghost Dance, and within a year it had spread to dozens of other reservations. Its strength among the Sioux alarmed U.S. officials, who made repeated efforts to suppress the new religion. These efforts culminated in the massacre at the Black Hills Reservation in Wounded Knee, South Dakota, ending the Ghost Dance (or Messiah) War. Wounded Knee was the last military encounter between American Indians and whites.